Everything about Gothic Revival totally explained
The
Gothic Revival is an
architectural movement which began in the 1740s in
England. In the early nineteenth century, increasingly serious and learned admirers of neo-Gothic styles sought to revive
medieval forms, in contrast to the
classical styles which were then prevalent. The movement has had significant influence throughout the
United Kingdom as well as on the continent of
Europe, in
Australia and
the Americas, and perhaps the number of Gothic Revival structures built in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries exceeds the number of authentic
Gothic structures that had been built previously.
The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by
medievalism, which had its roots in
antiquarian concerns with survivals and curiosities. In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classical
Romanticism gave rise to the
Gothic novel genre, beginning with
Castle of Otranto (1764) by
Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford, and inspired a 19th century genre of medieval poetry which stems from the pseudo-bardic poetry of "
Ossian." Poems like "
Idylls of the King" by
Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions.
History
Survival and revival
Gothic architecture is generally considered to have begun at the
Abbey of Saint-Denis, Paris, in 1140 and ended with a last great flourish at
Henry VIIs Chapel at Westminster in the early 16th century. However, Gothic architecture didn't die out completely in 1520 but instead lingered in on-going cathedral-building projects and the construction of churches in increasingly isolated rural districts of
England,
France,
Spain,
Germany and the
Polish Commonwealth. In
Bologna, in 1646, the Baroque architect
Carlo Rainaldi constructed Gothic vaults (completed 1658) for the Basilica of San Petronio which had been under construction since 1390; there, the Gothic context of the structure overrode considerations of the current architectural mode. Similarly, Gothic architecture survived in an urban setting during the later 17th century, as shown in
Oxford and
Cambridge, where some additions and repairs to Gothic buildings were apparently considered to be more in keeping with the style of the original structures than contemporary
Baroque. Sir
Christopher Wren's
Tom Tower for
Christ Church,
Oxford University, and, later,
Nicholas Hawksmoor's west towers of
Westminster Abbey, blur the boundaries between what is called "Gothic survival" and the Gothic revival.
In the mid 18th century, with the rise of
Romanticism, an
increased interest and awareness of the Middle Ages among some influential connoisseurs created a more appreciative approach to selected medieval arts, beginning with church architecture, the tomb monuments of royal and noble personages, stained glass, and late Gothic illuminated manuscripts. Other Gothic arts continued to be disregarded as barbaric and crude, however: tapestries and metalwork, as examples. Sentimental and nationalist associations with historical figures were as strong in this early revival, as purely aesthetic concerns. A few Britons, and soon some Germans, began to appreciate the
picturesque character of ruins — "picturesque" becoming a new aesthetic quality — and those mellowing effects of time that the Japanese call
wabi-sabi and which
Horace Walpole independently admired, mildly tongue-in-cheek, as "the true rust of the Barons' wars." The "Gothick" details of Walpole's
Twickenham villa, "
Strawberry Hill," (
illustrated, right) appealed to the
rococo tastes of the time, and by the 1770s, thoroughly
neoclassical architects such as
Robert Adam and
James Wyatt were prepared to provide Gothic details in drawing-rooms, libraries, and chapels, for a romantic vision of a Gothic abbey,
Fonthill Abbey in Wiltshire.
Inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746 with design input from
William Adam, displays early revival of Gothic features in
Scotland. The "Gothick" style was an architectural manifestation of the artificial "picturesque" seen elsewhere in the arts: these ornamental temples and
summer-houses ignored the structural logic of true Gothic buildings and were effectively Palladian buildings with pointed arches. The eccentric landscape designer
Batty Langley even attempted to "improve" Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions.
A younger generation who took Gothic architecture more seriously provided the readership for J. Britten's series of
Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817,
Thomas Rickman wrote an
Attempt… to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, "a text-book for the architectural student". Its long title is descriptive:
Attempt to discriminate the styles of English architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation; preceded by a sketch of the Grecian and Roman orders, with notices of nearly five hundred English buildings. The categories he used were
Norman,
Early English,
Decorated and
Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished in 1881.
Romanticism and nationalism
French neo-Gothic had its roots in a minor aspect of
Anglomanie, starting in the late 1780s. In 1816, when French scholar
Alexandre de Laborde said "Gothic architecture has beauties of its own," the idea was novel to most French readers. Starting in 1828, Alexandre Brogniart, the director of the
Sèvres porcelain manufactory, produced fired enamel paintings on large panes of plate glass, for
Louis-Philippe's royal chapel at
Dreux. It would be hard to find a large, significant commission in Gothic taste that preceded this one, save for some Gothic features in a handful of
jardins à l'anglaise.
The French Gothic revival was set on sounder intellectual footings by a pioneer,
Arcisse de Caumont, who founded the
Societé des Antiquaires de Normandy at a time when
antiquaire still meant a connoisseur of antiquities, and who published his great work on Norman architecture in 1830 (Summerson 1948). The following year
Victor Hugo's
Notre Dame de Paris appeared, in which the great Gothic cathedral of Paris was at once a setting and a protagonist in a hugely popular work of fiction. Hugo intended his book to awaken a concern for the surviving Gothic architecture, however, rather than to initiate a craze for neo-Gothic in contemporary life. In the same year that
Nôtre-Dame de Paris appeared, the new French monarchy established a post of Inspector-General of Ancient Monuments, a post filled in 1833 by
Prosper Merimée, who became the secretary of a new
Commission des Monuments Historiques in 1837. This was the Commission that instructed
Eugène Viollet-le-Duc to report on the condition of the abbey of Vézelay in 1840. Following this, Viollet le Duc set to restore most of the symbolic buildings in France - Notre Dame de Paris, Vézelay, Carcassone,
Roquetaillade castle, Mont Saint-Michel, Pierrefonds, Palais des Papes à Avignon . . . .
When France’s first prominent neo-Gothic church was built, the Basilica of Sainte-Clothilde, Paris, begun in September 1846 and consecrated
30 November 1857, the architect chosen was, significantly, of German extraction, François-Christian Gau (1790–1853); the design wassignificantly modified by Gau's assistant, Théodore Ballu, in the later stages, to produce the pair of
flêches that crown the west end.
Meanwhile, in
Germany, interest in the
Cologne Cathedral, which had begun construction in 1248 and was still unfinished at the time of the revival, began to reappear. The 1820s Romantic movement brought back interest, and work began once more in 1824, significantly marking a German return of Gothic architecture.
Because of
Romantic nationalism in the early 19th century, the Germans, French and English all claimed the original Gothic architecture of the 12th century as originating in their own country. The English boldly coined the term "Early English" for Gothic, a term that implied Gothic architecture was an English creation. In his 1832 edition of
Notre Dame de Paris Victor Hugo said "Let us inspire in the nation, if it's possible, love for the national architecture", implying that Gothic was France's national heritage. In Germany with the completion of Cologne Cathedral in the 1880s, at the time the world's tallest building, the cathedral was seen as the height of Gothic architecture. Another major completations of Gothic cathedrals were of
Regensburger Dom (with twin
spires from 1869-1872),
Ulm Münster (with 161 meter tower from 1890) and
St. Vitus Cathedral (1844-1929).
In
Florence, the
Duomo's temporary façade erected for the Medici-House of Lorraine nuptials in 1588–1589, was dismantled, and the west end of the cathedral stood bare again until 1864, when a competition was held to design a new facade suitable to
Arnolfo di Cambio's structure and the fine
campanile next to it. This competition was won by
Emilio De Fabris, and work on his polychrome design and panels of
mosaic was begun in 1876 and completed in 1887, creating Neo-Gothic facade.
Pugin, Ruskin and the Gothic as a moral force
In the late 1820s,
A.W.N. Pugin, still a teenager, was working for two highly visible employers, providing Gothic detailing for luxury goods. For the Royal furniture makers Morel and Seddon he provided designs for redecorations for the elderly
George IV at
Windsor Castle in a Gothic taste suited to the setting. For the royal silversmiths
Rundell Bridge and Co., Pugin provided designs for silver from 1828, using the 14th-century Anglo-French Gothic vocabulary that he'd continue to favour later in designs for the new Palace of Westminster (see left)
(External Link
). Between 1821 and 1838 Pugin and his father published a series of volumes of architectural drawings, the first two entitled,
Specimens of Gothic Architecture, and the following three,
Examples of Gothic Architecture, that were to remain both in print and the standard references for Gothic revivalists for at least the next century.
In
Contrasts (1836), Pugin expressed his admiration not only for mediæval art but the whole mediæval ethos, claiming that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society. In
The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (1841), he suggested that modern craftsmen seeking to emulate the style of medieval workmanship should also reproduce its methods. Pugin believed Gothic was true Christian architecture, and even claimed "The pointed arch was produced by the Catholic faith". Pugin's most famous building is
The Houses of Parliament in
London, which he designed in two campaigns, 1836–1837 and again in 1844 and 1852, with the classicist
Charles Barry as his co-architect. Pugin provided the external decoration and the interiors, while Barry designed the symmetrical layout of the building, causing Pugin to remark, "All Grecian, Sir; Tudor details on a classic body".
John Ruskin supplemented Pugin's ideas in his two hugely influential theoretical works,
The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and
The Stones of Venice (1853). Finding his architectural ideal in
Venice, Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the "sacrifice" of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone. By declaring the
Doge's Palace to be "the central building of the world", Ruskin argued the case for Gothic government buildings as Pugin had done for churches, though only in theory. When his ideas were put into practice, Ruskin despised the spate of public buildings built with references to the Ducal Palace, including the
University Museum in Oxford.
Ecclesiology
In England, the
Church of England was undergoing a revival of
Anglo-Catholic and
ritualist ideology in the form of the
Oxford Movement and it became desirable to build large numbers of new churches to cater for the growing population. This found ready exponents in the universities, where the
ecclesiological movement was forming. Its proponents believed that Gothic was the
only style appropriate for a parish church, and favoured a particular era of Gothic architecture — the "
decorated".
The Ecclesiologist, the publication of the
Cambridge Camden Society, was so savagely critical of new church buildings that were below its exacting standards that a style called the 'archaeological Gothic' emerged, producing some of the most convincingly mediæval buildings of the Gothic revival. However, not every architect or client was swept away by this tide. Although Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, the attempt to associate it with the notion of high church superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the ecclesiological movement, was anathema to those with ecumenical or nonconformist principles. They looked to adopt it solely for its aesthetic romantic qualities, to combine it with other styles, or look to northern Europe for Gothic of a more plain appearance; or in some instances all three of these, as at the ecumenical
Abney Park Cemetery for whom the architect
William Hosking FSA was engaged.
Viollet-le-Duc and Iron Gothic
If
France hadn't been quite as early on the neo-Gothic scene, she produced a giant of the revival in
Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. As well as being a powerful and influential theorist, Viollet-le-Duc was a leading architect whose genius lay in restoration. He believed in restoring buildings to a state of completion that they wouldn't have known even when they were first built, theories he applied to his restorations of the walled city of
Carcassonne, and to
Notre-Dame and
Sainte Chapelle in
Paris. In this respect he differed from his English counterpart Ruskin as he often replaced the work of mediaeval stonemasons. His rational approach to Gothic was in stark contrast to the revival’s romanticist origins, and considered by some to be a prelude to the
structural honesty demanded by Modernism.
Throughout his career he remained in a quandary as to whether iron and masonry should be combined in a building. Iron had in fact been used in Gothic buildings since the earliest days of the revival. It was only with Ruskin and the archaeological Gothic's demand for structural truth that iron, whether it was visible or not, was deemed improper for a Gothic building. This argument began to collapse in the mid-19th century as great prefabricated structures such as the glass and iron
Crystal Palace and the glazed courtyard of the Oxford University Museum were erected, which appeared to embody Gothic principles through iron. Between 1863 and 1872 Viollet-le-Duc published his
Entretiens sur l’architecture, a set of daring designs for buildings that combined iron and masonry. Though these projects were never realised, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, notably
Antoni Gaudi in Spain and, in England, Benjamin Bucknall, Viollet's foremost English follower and translator, whose masterpiece was
Woodchester Mansion.
The flexibility and strength of cast iron freed neo-Gothic designers to create new structural gothic forms impossible in stone, as in
Calvert Vaux's cast-iron bridge in
Central Park, New York (1860s;
illustration, right). Vaux enlists openwork forms derived from Gothic blind-arcading and window tracery to express the spring and support of the arching bridge, in flexing forms that presage
Art Nouveau.
By 1872 the Gothic Revival was mature enough in the United Kingdom that
Charles Locke Eastlake, an influential professor of design, could produce
A History of the Gothic Revival, but the first extended essay on the movement that was written within the maturing field of
art history was
Kenneth Clark,
The Gothic Revival. An Essay, which appeared in 1928.
Gothic Revival in the decorative arts
The revived Gothic style wasn't limited to architecture. Whimsical Gothick detailing in English furniture is traceable as far back at Lady Pomfret's house in Arlington Street, London (1740s), and gothic fretwork in chairbacks and glazing patterns of bookcases is a familiar feature of
Chippendale's
Director (1754, 1762), where, for example the three-part bookcase employs gothick details with Rococo profusion, on a symmetrical form. Sir Walter Scott's
Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the "Regency gothic". By the mid-nineteenth century Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in
wallpaper, and gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. The illustrated catalogue for the
Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery.
Vernacular adaptations
Carpenter Gothic houses and small churches became common in North America and other places in the late nineteenth century. These structures adapted Gothic elements such as pointed arches, steep gables, and towers to traditional American
light-frame construction. The invention of the
scroll saw and mass-produced wood moldings allowed a few of these structures to mimic the florid
fenestration of the High Gothic. But in most cases, Carpenter Gothic buildings were relatively unadorned, retaining only the basic elements of pointed-arch windows and steep gables. Probably the best known example of Carpenter Gothic is a house in
Eldon, Iowa, that
Grant Wood used for the background of his famous painting
American Gothic.
The 20th century and beyond
At the turn of the 20th century, technological developments such as the light bulb, the elevator, and steel framing caused many to see architecture that used load-bearing masonry as obsolete. Steel framing supplanted the non-ornamental functions of
rib vaults and
flying buttresses. Some architects used Neo-Gothic tracery as applied ornament to an iron skeleton underneath, for example in
Cass Gilbert's 1913
Woolworth Building skyscraper in
New York and
Raymond Hood's 1922
Tribune Tower in Chicago. But over the first half of the century, Neo-Gothic became supplanted by
Modernism. Some in the
Modern Movement saw the Gothic tradition of architectural form entirely in terms of the "honest expression" of the technology of the day, and saw themselves as the rightful heir to this tradition, with their rectangular frames and exposed iron girders.
In spite of this, the Gothic revival continued to exert its influence, simply because many of its more massive projects were still being built well into the second half of the 20th century, such as
Giles Gilbert Scott's Liverpool Cathedral. In the USA,
James Gamble Rodgers' reconstruction of the campus of
Yale University and
Charles Donagh Maginnis's early buildings at
Boston College helped establish the prevalence of Collegiate Gothic architecture on American university campuses.
Charles Klauder's Gothic revival skyscraper on the
University of Pittsburgh's campus, the
Cathedral of Learning, for example, used very Gothic stylings both inside and out, while using modern technologies to make the building taller.
Ralph Adams Cram became a leading force in American Gothic, with his most ambitious project the
Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York (claimed to be the largest Cathedral in the world), as well as Collegiate Gothic buildings at
Princeton University. Cram said "the style hewn out and perfected by our ancestors [has] become ours by uncontested inheritance." In addition to
Princeton University,
Lehigh University and
Boston College, some of the buildings on
West Chester University's campus are also built in the Collegiate Gothic style. Also, Atlanta's historic
Oglethorpe University continues to build in the Collegiate Gothic style to this day.
Though the number of new Gothic revival buildings declined sharply after the 1930s, they continue to be built. The cathedral of
Bury St. Edmunds was constructed between the late 1950s and 2005
(External Link). In 2002,
Demetri Porphyrios was commissioned to design a neo-Gothic residential college at
Princeton University to be known as Whitman College. Porphyrios has won several commissions after votes by student bodies, not university design committees, suggesting that neo-gothic architecture may be more popular among the general public than among those in the architectural profession.
Famous examples
Asia (Region)
Argentina
Cathedral of La Plata
Australia
Vaucluse House Sydney Regency Gothic.
Sydney Conservatorium of Music, the old Government stable block.
Government House, Sydney
St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney
St. Mary's Cathedral, Sydney
Sydney University, the main building, commenced 1850s, extended 20th century.
St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne
St. Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne
Melbourne University main building.
St David's Cathedral (Hobart)
Government House, Hobart
Austria
Votivkirche, Vienna, 1856-79
Rathaus, Vienna, 1872-83
Belgium
Maredsous Abbey, 1872-1892
Castle of Loppem, 1856-1869
Brazil
São Paulo Sé Cathedral (Catedral da Sé de São Paulo), São Paulo, 1912-1967
São João Batista Cathedral (Catedral São João Batista), Santa Cruz do Sul, 1928-1932
Canada
Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Ontario, 1878
Notre-Dame Basilica, Montreal, Quebec, 1888
St. James' Cathedral, Toronto, Canada, 1844
Cathedral of St. John the Baptist St. John's, Newfoundland, 1847-85
Church of Our Lady Immaculate, Guelph, Ontario
Currie Building, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, 1922
College Building, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (1913)
Little Trinity Anglican Church, 1843, Toronto, Ontario - Tudor Gothic revival
Church of the Holy Trinity (Toronto), 1847, Toronto, Ontario
St.Dunstan's Basilica (Charlottetown) 1916, Charlottetown, PEI
Croatia
Castle Trakošćan, 1886
Hermann Bollé, Monumental cemetery Mirogoj, Zagreb, 1879-1929
Hermann Bollé, Zagreb cathedral, 1880-
Czech Republic
Completion of St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague, 1870-1929
Completion of Saint Wenceslas cathedral, Olomouc, 1883-92
Hluboká Chateau
Finland
St. Henry's Cathedral, Helsinki, 1858-1860
Ritarihuone, Helsinki, 1862
Heinävesi Church, Heinävesi, 1890–1891
St. John's Church, Helsinki, 1888-1893
Mikkeli Cathedral, Mikkeli, 1896-1897
Joensuu church, Joensuu, 1903
France
The central spire of the Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris.
Germany
Nauen Gate, Potsdam, 1755
Gothic House, Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm, 1774
Friedrichwerdersche Kirche, Berlin, 1824-30
Castle in Kamenz (now Kamieniec Ząbkowicki in Poland), 1838-65
Burg Hohenzollern, 1850-67
Completion of Cologne Cathedral, 1842-80
New Town Hall, Munich, 1867-1909
Hungary
Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest, 1885-1904
Italy
Castello d'Albertis, Genoa
Castello di Pollenzo, Brà (near Cuneo), Piedmont.
The facade of the campanile of the Duomo, in Florence.
New Zealand
Seacliff Lunatic Asylum, Dunedin, 1884-1959
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch
Christchurch Arts Centre, Christchurch
Christchurch Cathedral, Christchurch
Norway
Tromsø Cathedral, in wood, Tromsø, Norway, 1861
Poland
Gothic House in Puławy, 1800-1809
Potocki mausoleum located at the Wilanów Palace, 1823-1826
Kórnik Castle, 1843-61
Blessed Bronisława Chapel in Kraków, 1856-1861
Karol Scheibler's Chapel in Łódź, 1885-1888
Romania
Palace of Culture in Iaşi
Russia
Chesme palace church (1780), St Petersburg
Tsaritsyno Palace, Moscow
Nikolskaya tower of Moscow Kremlin, Moscow
St. Mary Cathedral, Moscow
TSUM, Moscow
Spain
Astorga Episcopal Palace, Astorga
Cathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna
Facade of Cathedral of Santa Eulalia, Barcelona
Sobrellano Palace, Comillas
Ukraine
Swallow's Nest, Crimea
St. Nicholas Roman Catholic Cathedral, Kiev
Roman Catholic Cathedral in Kharkiv
United Kingdom
Strawberry Hill, London, begun in 1749
Hawarden Castle (18th century), Hawarden, Wales
Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, England, 1795-1813 (non-existent)
Gwrych Castle, Abergele, Wales, 1819
Penrhyn Castle, Gwynedd, Wales, 1820-1845
Cyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, 1824
Palace of Westminster (Houses of Parliament), London, England, begun in 1840
Barclay Church, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1862-1864
Scott Monument, Edinburgh, Scotland, begun in 1841
The Maughan Library, City of London, England, 1851-1858
Woodchester Mansion, Gloucestershire, c. 1858–1873
Tyntesfield, Somerset, 1863
Cardiff Castle, Glamorgan, Wales 1866-1869
33-35 Eastcheap, City of London, 1868
St. Pancras Station, London, England, 1868
Gilbert Scott Building, University of Glasgow campus, Glasgow, Scotland, (the second largest example of Gothic Revival architecture in the British Isles), 1870
Keble College, Oxford, England, 1870
Castell Coch, Glamorgan, Wales, 1871
Albert Memorial, London, England, 1872
Manchester Town Hall, Manchester, England, 1877
Founder's building, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, England 1881
Downside Abbey, Somerset, c. 1882–1925
John Rylands Library, Manchester, England, 1890-1900
Wills Memorial Building at the University of Bristol, Bristol, England, 1915-25
Broadway Theatre, Catford, London, 1928-32
United States
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York City, 1858-78
Princeton University Chapel Princeton, 1925-1928 (and other buildings such as the Graduate College)
Woolworth Building, New York City, 1910-13
Washington National Cathedral, Washington, D.C., District of Columbia, 1907-90
Gasson Tower and Bapst Library at Boston College, 1908
Bryn Athyn Cathedral in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania, 1913-19
McGraw Tower, Uris Library, Willard Straight Hall, and other buildings on the Cornell University campus in Ithaca, New York.
Cathedral Building, Oakland, California, 1914
Harkness Tower at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 1917-21
Alumni Memorial Building at Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1925
Tribune Tower, Chicago, Illinois, completed in 1925
Duke Chapel and the main quadrangle of the West Campus of Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 1930-35
East Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1932-35
Cathedral of Learning and the Heinz Chapel at the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
Several buildings of the Fordham University campus in The Bronx including structures as recently constructed as 2000.
Several buildings on the University of Richmond campus, Richmond, Virginia, 1937
Healy Hall at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 1877-79
PPG Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1984
Lanier High School(External Link), Montgomery, Alabama
The library at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, NY
Rockefeller Chapel and other buildings on the University of Chicago campus, Chicago, Illinois
Salt Lake Temple, Salt Lake City Utah, 1896
St. John's Episcopal Church (Cleveland, Ohio) 1836, the oldest consecrated building in Cuyahoga County, Ohio
Saint Peter's Episcopal Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania built 1851, moved and re-constructed 1901, destroyed (date needed)
Several buildings on the Grove City College campus, Grove City, Pennsylvania
Several buildings on the Seton Hall University campus, South Orange, New Jersey
Several buildings on the Bryn Mawr College campus, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania
Several buildings on the University of Florida campus, Gainesville, Florida
Brookings Hall and several buildings on the Washington University campus, St. Louis, Missouri
Several buildings on the City College of New York campus, New York City
Several buildings on the Rhodes College campus, Memphis, Tennessee
Natrona County High School, [Casper,Wyoming], 1924
Gothic revival architects
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